Egyptian Babylonian and Hebrew Mythology The Door to a Civi

Egyptians, Babylonians, and Hebrews have similarities yet also differences in their religions. The importance is not in the similarities as much as it is in the differences that distinguish the cultures from each other and their views on life. I would like to point out each civilization's creation and flood story. By analyzing these stories we can come to a better understanding of their world views. The Hebrew creation story from the book of Genesis is one that most people know well. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. The earth was without form and void. God said, "let there be light," and there was light. He then separated the light from the darkness. He also created the land, plants, and animals. He saw everything he created and, behold, it was good. The heavens and earth were completed and all that dwelled within them. On the seventh day he rested. The earth was complete, but there was nothing to take care of this creation. So, God created man in the image of himself. Man was created from the dust of the ground. God gave him the breath of life and the man became a living soul (Moses 1:1-2:7). With the background of that story, one should look at the Egyptian interpretation of the beginning. At first there was nothing but chaos that contained the seed of everything to come. In this confusion the sun god dwelled. By an effort of his will he emerged from chaos as Ra and gave birth to Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess moisture. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb and Nut, the earth god and sky goddess. Thus the physical universe was created. People were created from Ra's tears. Time passed and Ra grew frail, so the ungrateful race of men plotted against Ra. When Ra learned of this he called the gods together. The gods decided that mankind must be destroyed. Tens of thousands of men were killed until only a few were left. Then Ra relented and man was spared. Nevertheless Ra was sick of the world and retreated into the heavens, leaving Shu to reign in his place. At that time the present world was established. The Babylonians have their own interpretation of the beginning. All things came from the water. From the mixture of sweet water, Aspu, with salt water, Tiamat, the gods arose. Aspu and Tiamat gave birth to a pair of gigantic serpents, Lakhmu and Lakhamu. These two serpents produced Anshar and Kishar, the heavens and the earth. Anshar and Kishar then conceived Anu, Enlil, and Ea. Aspu and Tiamat grew angry because the younger gods were noisy. So, they decided to destroy the new gods. Ea, the all knowing, learned of this plan and used his magic to capture Apsu. Tiamat became furious and created and army of gods and monsters to punish Ea and the others. Marduk was asked to stand against Tiamat and her army. Marduk promised to defeat Tiamat if he was given supremacy over the gods. Marduk defeated Tiamat and her army. While he was cutting up Tiamat's body he used half her body and created the dome of the heavens. With the other half he made the earth. Then to make the other gods happy he created men from the blood of the battle. He then made rivers, plants, and animals completing creation. With these stories' background one can now analyze the likeness and differences among them. The Egyptian and Babylonian stories show several gods in charge of creating the world. The difference between these two is that Marduk was given leadership by the gods bestowing their powers upon him. The Egyptians do not actually raise one god above another. The Hebrews have only one God, who created the earth. The gods from each story created man from different items. The Egyptian and Babylonian gods created man from tears and blood respectively. The Hebrew God created man from dust, but in the image of himself. This seems to forge a connection or bond between the Hebrews and their god. They are not gods themselves, but with his image they have the ability to be godlike. The flood stories of the cultures also show how they view their gods and the attitude the gods have toward the people. The Hebrew God flooded the world because people had turned their backs on God and were no longer worshipping him. In short, one could say that the people in a way deserved the punishment they received. This is also shown in the Egyptian creation story when the people turned against Ra. Both of these gods showed compassion and remorse after the killing was done. However, the Babylonian gods flooded the earth because it was so noisy that they could not sleep. Not a fitting punishment for the crime committed. The Babylonian gods were outraged when they realized Utnapishtim was delivered from the catastrophe. The Egyptians do not have a flood story, is this because of the regularity of the Nile's flooding. The Egyptian saw balance and harmony with the Nile's example. The different cultures' attitude toward their gods is also shown in their literature. The Egyptians and Hebrews loved and worshipped their gods.. This is shown in the Egyptian "The Hymn to the Aten" and the Hebrew "Psalms." Each of these works praises and exalts their respective god. The Babylonians feared their god as they did their rivers that were unpredictable. The lifestyles and geography of each civilization helped shape each cultures view of their gods. For nature was the only physical manifestation of their gods.

ACUPUNCTURE

A Chinese medical technique; acupuncture is a medicine originating in the orient over four-thousand years ago. Used primarily for pain relief, but also in curing disease and general health improvement. Oriental Medicine views (illness and pain) as an imbalance of one's energy. With Acupuncture the energetic balance can be restored, thus helping the body to rid itself of disease. Often illnesses can be diagnosed and treated at an early stage. Acupuncture consists of inserting hair thin needles through specific spots in the skin called acupuncture points. These specific spots of insertion are over neuroreceptors in underlying muscles. These needles are inserted along meridian points throughout the body; There are hundreds of these meridians, all serving different purposes. "Evidence proves that needling simulates peripheral nerves in the muscles which send messages to the brain to release endorphins (morphine-like peptides in the brain). These natural chemicals then block the sending of painful messages from the brain." (Acupuncture-Microsoft Network Nov. 30, 1996). Acupuncture needles are typically inserted 1/10 to 4/10 on an inch deep. Although some procedures require needles to be inserted as deep as 10 inches. Acupuncture points are then stimulated by various forms of needle stimulation. Acupuncture is an incredibly effective form of medicine; This essay will present details explaining some of the uses of acupuncture. Acupuncture; the insertion of needles into the body through specific spots, over neurorecepters. These needles are then stimulated by either: rotation, heat, or by a weak electrical current. Acupuncture is a medical technique used primarily as a relief of pain, but is known to cure disease, as well as improve general health. "The theory suggest that acupuncture blocks the transmission of pain impulses from parts of the body to the central nervous system." (Compton's interactive encyclopedia). Three main sites have been found for endorphin acupuncture analgesia. This type of acupuncture blocks the sending of pain messages from the brain. The pituitary gland being one; this gland, when stimulated by needles, releases endorphin. The second site are the periaquaductal gray neurons in the mid brain which release endorphins when stimulated. The third, electrical stimulation to the spinal cord endorphin system. The spinal cord releases endorphins to block the release of neurotransmitters, which carry the painful messages from the brain. Acupuncture, used in Asia for over four thousand years; Originally for the relief of pain. "Acupuncture appears to be undeniably effective in relieving pain." (Compton's interactive encyclopedia). Western observers witnessed, ordinarily painful surgical operations carried out on fully conscious patients. These patients were only locally anesthetized by acupuncture and exhibited no signs of discomfort. The reason for acupuncture's success is not known, except for the belief that acupuncture needles stimulate the body's production of such natural pain-killing chemical substances as endorphins and enkephalins. Acupuncture; known to cure disease and improve general health. With the enormous problem of high blood pressure in the United States, acupuncture has been very effective in the control of pressure; aiding Americans in the fight to keep their blood pressure down. In many arthritis patients, acupuncture has almost completely eliminated the pain and suffering. We as a society understand the problem with obesity in the United States; acupuncture successfully aided in the control of appetite. "At one time acupuncture was believed to be related to hypnosis, but extensive experiments in animals undergoing surgery in veterinary hospitals have disproved that theory." (Compton's interactive encyclopedia). Meridians; the entire theory of acupuncture is on the belief of these meridians. These "meridians" are energy trails or channels throughout the body; believed by the Chinese to hold the opposite forces Yin and Yang, acupuncture keeps these two forces in balance. For example, the ancient Chinese designated that a master force or vital energy called Ch'I coordinates and controls the fundamental activities of different organs in the body. Modern physicians have a difficult time accepting these elaborate systems of fanciful theories developed thousands of years ago to explain the mechanisms of acupuncture. Modern science teaches that the nervous system and various hormonal substances perform the functions that these ancient doctors attributed to Ch'i. These energy channels are like rivers flowing through the body to irrigate and nourish the tissues. An obstruction in the movement of these energy rivers is like a dam that backs up in others. The meridians can be influenced by needling the acupuncture points; the acupuncture needles unlock the obstructions at the dams, and reestablish the regular flow through the meridians. (Acupuncture-Microsoft Network, Nov. 30, 1996). Stimulation of acupuncture needles; once all the needles are inserted for the specific meridian, the needles must be stimulated. The stimulation is what causes acupuncture to be so effective. There are several ways in which stimulation is reached: One being, a gentle twirling motion. The physician, by use of his/her fingers gently rotates the needles. Second, there is heat stimulation, the physician heats the needle with a cigar looking tool designed specifically for acupuncture. Third, electrical stimulation; the physician agitates the needles with a low powered 2 hz electrical current. The physician connects the needles to a low output electrical stimulation machine. Stimulation is key to the success of acupuncture. Acupuncture, a medical technique originating in the Orient, more than four-thousand years ago. Used primarily for reduction of pain, but to cure some disease, as well as improvement of general health. The most spectacular reason for acupuncture's success is: Stimulation of needles by the acupuncturist. Stimulation of the meridians; the rivers of energy throughout our bodies. These rivers get stopped up from time to time, acupuncture is the key to clearing the stop... Acupuncture a method of encouraging the body to promote natural healing and to improve bodily functions.

King Arthur The Legend

By the ninth century people all over were telling the fabulous tales and romances about Arthur and his kingdom. The common people heard them sung by bards, while in the court poets wrote different versions. In each retelling the speaker would select certain details for emphasis and introduce new elements, so that the story could be adapted to the particular time and audience. Although most historians believe that there actually did exist an Arthur, they differ on how major his role was on influencing society during his time. To understand the most widely accepted view on when and how Arthur gained fame, one must be aware of the historical time period surrounding Arthur. The unity that the Roman government imposed on Britain disappeared around 410 AD. In its place arose small villages whose rulers struggled for political and military supremacy. Around 540, a Welsh monk and historian named Gildas wrote in his book Concerning the Ruin and Conquest of Britain that "The disasters that the British people suffered at the hands of the Anglo-Saxons after the Roman withdrawal were clear evidence that god was punishing them for their sins." It was during these disasters that the monk was referring to that Arthur held up resistance for the Britons against the Saxons, at a time when Britain was constantly being threatened by invaders. Through being the commander who routed the battles against the enemy and thereby saving the south of Britain from distruction of the Saxons, "Arthur became the image of the hero and savior whose death people refused to believe in and whose return was yearned for." The opinion that Arthur was a genuine figure in history, though not the glorious King Arthur that most people know him to be, is largely based on the writings of Nennius, a Welsh historian, who gave the first and only historical account of Arthur's military career in Chapter 56. The passage starts with a date. "After the death of Hengist, his son Octha came from northern Britain and settled in Kent, whence come the kings of Kent. Then Arthur fought against them in those days, with the Kings of the Britons, but he himself was the leader of the battles." Here Nennius implies that Arthur was not a king but a general of some sort, who helped the rulers of small British kingdoms organize themselves, combining forces to fight against the Saxons. In another section entitled The Marvels of Britain, Nennius calls Arthur a soldier: Here he tells of Cabal, the dog of Arthur the Soldier, and of the grave of Anwr, the son of Arthur the Soldier. The passage then continues describing the twelve battles that Arthur fought and won. The last battle, the greatest in the history of the country, was at Badon Hill. It resulted in a total massacre of the Saxons, establishing fifty years of peace from the Saxon's horrible brutality of slaughtering, burning and senseless vandalism (Jenkins 30-31). Nennius's historical account is backed up by a set of Easter Tables. They were calculating tables as to when Easter would fall out for the next given number of years and in them were noted events of outstanding importance. In the annals were two dates regarding Arthur. The first date is disputed: It is put as either 499 or 518 A.D. The first entry reads: "Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights and the Britons were victors (Jenkins 28)." The second entry dated 539 reads: The Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Modred perished. And there was plague in Britain and Ireland (Jenkins 28)." These accounts of Arthur are not only the basis for his fame, but they also show us the broad terrain of Arthur's military activity. While the Battle of Mount Badon was fought in Southern England, the battle of Cat Coit Celidon, mentioned in the Historia Brittonum, was fought in Scotland. The implications of Arthur's widespread battles lead to two conclusions of him. One is his political position as agent of a number of kingdoms, and the other is his easy mobility of his forces (Alcock 18). The mobility of Arthur's army makes it nearly impossible to pin Arthur down to a set region. However, there was an archeological search for Arthur's castle Camelot in southern Cadbury, Somerset, England attempted by The Camelot Research Committee in 1966 to 1972. They discovered "markings denoting the existence of an elaborate hill- fort. Enormous concentric rings of earthen embankments covering over 18 acres outlined a fortification that only a powerful warlord would have maintained (Schlesinger 107)." Unearthed artifacts enabled the searchers to determine that the "castle" was active in the sixth century. The architectural style resembled the style of Roman forts prior to the Arthurian age. All evidence found gave proof that the fort was used during Arthur's time, but none positively proved that Arthur actually lived there (Schlesinger 107). The earliest search for physical proof of Arthur occurred in the twelfth century under the command of King Henry II. During his reign it was rumored that the town of Glastonbury was Arthur's resting place, the legendary island of Avalon. It was said that the king's tomb laid between the two pillars in the cemetery of Glastonbury Abbey. King Henry ordered the Glastonbury monks to search for the tomb. A tomb was found after King Henry II died. At that time a monk wrote : "Seven feet down the diggers found a slab of stone and a lead cross inscribed HIC IACET SEPULTUS INCLITUS REX ARTURIUS IN INSULA AVALONIA- Here lies buried the renowned King Arthur in the Isle of Avaon (Schlesinger 102)." The monk also described the contents of the tomb. They found the skeleton of a tall man and also some slighter bones with a scrap of yellow hair, presumably that of Arthur's queen. There is much debate on the authenticity of "Arthur's Tomb." It is impossible to say that strands of human hair could have endured a period of 600 years. The blond hair couldn't have existed if one wants to believe this is the tomb of Arthur. The lead cross that was supposedly found by the monks, that marked the location of Arthur's burial place, had been lost and is thought to have been made by the Glastonbury monks in order to give more credence to their find and in order to gain more glory for their abbey (Schlesinger 103). There are several reasons why archeological proof is rarely available for the "quest of truth" regarding the Arthurian time period. The prime reason for this is the fact that Britons used perishable materials such as earth and wood to build their forts and homes. Their daily tools were made from carved wood. The clothing and armor they wore were made from leather, cloth, and fur, which all disintegrate quickly with time (Schlesinger 101). In addition to this, any archeological evidence that might be found would be useless without a clear time scale into which it can be fitted. Also, their does not exist an accurate historical time scale for events in Britain between the end of the fourth century and the beginning of the seventh century. The archaeology can tell us how Arthur might have lived but still would not resolve the prime question of who Arthur was and when he lived ( Barber 23). A third reason for this is that we can't pin Arthur down to one region or place, because of the hasty mobility of Arthur and his troops. It would be very difficult to do a large scale archaeological dig on such a vast piece of territory. None of Arthur's place names are accurate. Arthur's Seat, the various Arthur Stones, and the Round Tables have no valid connection to him. Some of these items refer to archeological monuments dated two or three thousand years after Arthur (Alcock 18). Though Nennius's documents are more widely known, the earliest historical reference referring to an Arthur is Life of Columba. It is written by Adomnan around 700 A.D. Adomnan wrote about an Arthur who is the son of Aedan mac Gabrain, King of Dalriada. This Arthur is a warrior who dies (before his father, never giving him the chance to become king) fighting a tribe called Miathi. There are other occurrences with the name Arthur, associated with the north of Britain (Barber 21). There are several interpretations by historians of that earliest historical reference to an Arthur. Richard Barber in King Arthur, believes that is the original Arthur that was transformed into the legendary hero. He believes that we should reject Nennius' historical account and dating. Richard Barber believes that Nennius fabricated from literary sources his account to suit the political needs of the moment. He created a new image of the hero with which to encourage his contemporaries. According to Richard Barber, Nennius had his own purpose for history (Barber 22-23). According to Richard Barber's interpretation, one can still believe that the Arthur mentioned in the poem the "Gododdin" is referring to the first Arthur written about in Life of Columba. The "Gododdin" was a famous Welsh poem in the year 600 that describes the strength of a recently slain warrior. However, the poet admits about this warrior, "But he was not Arthur." This incidental mention of Arthur's name, which is the first mention of the legendary King Arthur, provides us with two conclusions. First, Arthur had to be so well known that a simple mention of his name would bring to the audience's mind the ideas of valor and heroism. Second Arthur had to have lived some time before the 600's but not too much before so the figure of Arthur would still be fresh in the audience's mind (Schlesinger 14). Others disagree with Barber. They believe that the Arthur mentioned in the Life of Columba is not the same Arthur of the legend. Arthur back then was a popular name because it was associated with heroism. They believe the Arthur who was made into a hero lived towards the end of the fifth century, early sixth. In order to establish the historical validity of the "Gododdin," one must understand that it was not the custom of Welsh poets to invent people and events; this is a modern invention. Therefore, historians believe that all of the characters in the early poems of Welsh literature are real people with actual events (Schlesinger 17). In other early Welsh literature, Arthur is still a shadowy figure. This is partly due to the fact that we only have fragments of early Welsh poetry in which Arthur's appearances are brief as a poetic hero. "So the process by which the first legends were woven around whatever historical nucleus there once was remains a puzzle (Barber 25)." During the eleventh and twelfth century Arthur became so popular as a hero that Welsh literature contains several references to Arthur which include actual incidents from his legendary career. The Welsh poets probably invented the incidents in order to enhance their work. Because of this there is no historical evidence on exactly what Arthur did, but one can see from this his popularity as a hero at this time. Welsh poetry usually portrays Arthur favorably. An ideal, heroic, active leader of a band of successful warriors and knights. Other times it talks of his knights' exploits, portraying him as the idol king who stays at home in a splendid romantic setting while his knights underwent the hardship and adventure. Unfortunately, not many of their triads have been preserved, though we do have many of their "headlines," which reflect on Arthur's increasing popularity. In some of the earlier triads, we are introduced to Arthur's wife Guinevere, and the magician Mordred, both of whom we meet again in later romances. Chretien de Troys, a French poet in the late twelfth century, adapted five tales about Arthur's court for the French society. He replaces the rugged, masculine world of the early tales of Arthur with the conflicts between the spiritual and the physical worlds. In Chretien's tales the deeds King Arthur accomplished are less important than the society that assembles at his court, the tales of the knights, and the beautiful ladies that gather there. Chretien's most common subject is the problems arising from earthly love. One of his famous stories is the romance between Lancelot and Guinevere. Like other poets of the time Chretien was influenced by a code of "courtly love" (Schlesinger 73-76). Chretien de Troys was the first to invent Camelot, a place with no historical authenticity (Alcock 14). It is never mentioned in the earliest traditions, or early evidence of Arthur. He saw Arthur as a monarch who needed the necessary furnishing and therefore invented "The finest court that ever has been"(Schlesinger 73). He created Arthur's court as a gathering place for nobles and courageous lords during the twelve year period of peace between the Saxons and Romans. Arthur's period of transition from reality to romance was long and complex. He was remembered as a hero by the Welsh bards who embellished and added to his legend in their own creative way. From Wales these tales traveled to Britain and France, where they became popular during the twelfth century through being spread by jogleurs and minstrels who wondered from castle to castle reciting Arthur's stories at feasts. The French poets eagerly seized on to the new material, and developed it into the earliest versions of the Arthurian legends that we possess today (Barber 34).

THE LEGEND OF SWEATING MOOSE-BALLS

A long time ago, there was nobody on the land except for one Indian tribe: The Cranchids. Then, the white man moved in, burning down their huts, killing all of the men, and taking the women to be slaves. They left all of the children alone, to survive on their own. One of the children was named Sweating Moose-Balls. His father was the chief of the tribe, and the greatest warrior that ever lived. His name was Dancing Prairie Chicken. Now that the chief was dead, Sweating Moose-Balls would become the Chief, at the age of eight winters. Sweating Moose-Balls learned quickly, and soon the other orphaned children were learning to collect food, build shelters, and hunt. Many winters had passed, and the village was as good as new. Sweating Moose-Balls was already a man, with a wife and five children. One day, one of the hunters ran back to the village, telling of white men in their forest. Sweating Moose-Balls took his ten best warriors with him to avenge the death of their families. They came into view of the enemy, and Sweating Moose-Balls recognized one of them. The man was old now, but he had been the one who had killed his father. The other ten warriors also recognized him, along with a few of the older men. Wanting revenge, the tribe encircled the men and moved in. Soon, the white men were trapped, and they noticed. Sweating Moose-Balls stepped forward, and spoke to the first old man. "You are the one who killed my father." he said. "yes, and we want to apologize. Your mothers have taken over our houses, and we need you to take them back." the old man pleaded. Sweating Moose-Balls thought for a moment. He could see that the man was sincere; he was practically begging. But then, Sweating Moose-Balls got an idea. He started to smile. "No, we will not take them back. You are our prisoners now, and we command you to take our whole tribe with you to your own land. We will have you make something called a Government, and they will give us money - a lot of it. All of the white men will have to pay taxes, which will go to us. In this way, we will not be your slaves anymore, but you will be our slaves. We will become rich off of you. You will live crowded together in places called cities, while we have all of the good land for ourselves, in places called reservations. The white men realised what this meant for them, but they had to do it. Today, all of the nations of that land can thank a proud hero, who let the natives be a major nationality, for all that they have. And white men still shudder when they hear the name that caused them so many nightmares: Sweating Moose-Balls.

Mythology Bookreport

I am writing to you today to tell you about a few wonderful myths that I have read. I feel that they would interest you as much as they did me. I will give you a brief summary on each so that they will be a little more familiar to you if you decide to read them at some time in the future. The first story I read was the tale of Hermes. Born on Mount Cyllene to his mother Maia, Hermes was an astonishing child. His growth was equally astonishing for he grew at a rapid rate. Deciding he wanted an adventure, Hermes set out one day and stole a herd of cows from Apollo, the sun god. When Apollo discovered the missing herd, he set out to find them but to no avail. Hearing of a reward offered by Apollo for the recovery of the herd, Silenus and his satyrs set out as well. Traveling far and wide their journeys brought them to a small cave, which echoed with the beautiful muffled sounds of a melody to which they were drawn. When finding out the music was produced by an instrument made of cow gut and tortoise shell, it was then understood that young Hermes had taken the herd from Apollo. Formal charges were brought to Mt. Olympus. Apollo, while going to get his remaining cows discovered Hermes' musical invention. Intrigued by this astonishing invention he offered his whole flock for the musical instrument. Hermes agreed, after which he invented a shepherd's pipe, which also awed Apollo. He offered Hermes his golden staff in exchange for the pipe but to no avail. In addition to the golden staff Hermes wanted the knowledge of augury. He felt it was a useful art. Hermes returned to Mt. Olympus to tell his father, Zeus, of all goings on. Zeus was very amused. Hermes suggested to Zeus that he be made into a herald. Zeus complied with this suggestion and showered Hermes with gifts. Sounds like an interesting tale, doesn't it. Well it is much better if you read it yourself. The next tale I read was of Krishna. This one story was the most confusing of the four I read. To fully understand it you must read it and interpret it for yourself. I will try to do the best I can. Rama and Krsna were two children who loved to play in the village. First they crawled and then they walked causing the village women to laugh and giving them great pleasure. Then Krsna started to untie the cows at inappropriate times and steal milk and curds. Krsna's mother was unable to scold him after looking at the child's' frightened face. She could only smile. One day a report came to her that Krsna had eaten dirt. She could not take it anymore and grabbed his hand and began to scold him. Krsna swore he had not eaten dirt and to prove this opened his mouth for his mother to peer inside. While looking into her child's' mouth she saw everything that was in the world. She saw all forms of life and time, she saw actions and hopes, her own village and herself. In the winter a group of girls celebrating vows to the goddess Katayayani went to the river, took off their clothes and chanted to Krsna. Krsna appeared and told them to take their clothes and go back to the village. When hearing the divine word from him the girls felt they had obtained what they wanted and returned to the village under Krshnas' command. To fully understand this story it is necessary to read it yourself and indulge in the vocabulary and trickster ways, which Krshna had shown. The next tale that I would like to share with you is the tale of Old Man Coyote. I hope this story intrigues you as it did me. This story told of a poor old coyote that wished he could renew his youth and vibrancy. One day he spotted a strong proud buffalo. He knew that this animal could help him so he went to ask the buffalo for his assistance. The buffalo said that he could make the old man coyote young and strong but could not restore his powers. Thankfully the coyote agreed to the buffalo's conditions and the process began. Once the coyote was transformed into a youthful buffalo the old man coyote began his youthful days of fun. One day, four years later another old coyote limped toward the buffalo. This time the buffalo was the transformed coyote. The old coyote asked for the buffalo to help him in his elderly days and transform him into a young buffalo as well. Forgetting that he had no powers the old transformed coyote offered his services and said that he knew how to help him. He led the old coyote to the same hill that he used four years ago. Following all the steps in which he had been transformed the buffalo tried to transform the old coyote. The result of this was that the buffalo had become his old coyote self once more. This story proved that if you start something it is always good to finish or the product is not as good as the real thing. This story was much simpler to read then the story of Krsna. The last tale I read concerned Legba, of the Fon tribe. This tale had four different sections, the first two describe why God lives in heaven and not on Earth. The second two describe the oracle's connection with God. The first section involves Legba. The tale explains how Legba and God lived together on Earth. God would blame all the mishaps on Legba. Yet whenever something good happened God would take the credit. One day Legba slipped into Gods sandals and stole the five yams which were growing in Gods garden. Since the rain had left the ground wet, the sandals left clear footprints in the ground so the next morning they were still there. God brought everyone over to see who fit the footprints. Legba offered the idea that maybe God had taken the yams in his sleep, so God put his foot in the print and saw that it was a perfect fit. All the people could not believe God could do this and even though God blamed his son for this act, he still moved off of the Earth leaving Legba to report the doing of the people on the Earth. The second tale tells how Legba asked an old woman to throw her dirty laundry water in to the air, as God got tired of getting hit in the face with dirty water he left Legba to see over the Earth. The other two parts of this tale explain how God watched over the Earth. One idea that has been reported is that Legba is associated with Fa. Fa lived on top of a palm tree and every day Legba would come and open his eyes. Since Fa did not like to convey his wishes out loud he would throw one palm nut down if he wanted two eyes open and two palm nuts if he wanted one eye open. This was done so that Fa could look over the world. Now that I have explained about these stories I have read, I hope you see the pattern that they are all connected by. They are all tales having to do with tricksters. Each story conveys a different characteristic that a trickster displays. In the story of Hermes, the characteristic displayed is cunning. Using his talents, Hermes avoided trouble and received not only respect and promotion but also gifts from the people that he had stolen from. In the tale of Krsna, the mother allowed the boy to get away with his evil deeds because of his divine powers. A perfect example of this divinity occurred when he opened his mouth and the mother could see the whole universe. This example is the divinity inherent in the trickster. In the tale of the old man coyote the characteristic displayed is unmerited kindness. This is demonstrated by the transformed coyote giving up his youth to help another. Even though he did this unwittingly he did not have to try to help the second coyote. The last tale showed the trickster framing another so that he could escape Gods' constant attention, and also so that he would gain the respect that he felt he deserved. This demonstrates the characteristic of guile. In all these stories the trickster does show a good heart but also a cunning side which is primarily what makes him what he is and what he is infamous for. I hope my letter has brought a little insight to the subject of tricksters. Also, I hope my summaries have made you interested in reading the stories in whole at your leisure.

A MYTHICAL ANALYSIS OF A YAQUI WAY OF KNOWLEDGE

In the summer of 1960, Carlos Casteneda, a UCLA anthropology student traveled to the southwest to do research on medicinal plants. While at a bus station, he met an extraordinary man. His name was don Juan Mateus, but I will refer to him as don Juan. Don Juan, a Yaqui "brujo" or shaman, decides to teach Carlos the "Yaqui way of knowledge." It is not known if these stories are fiction or non-fiction and many critics still debate over his writings. I interpret his books as modern mythological stories for several reasons. The "Heroic Journey Archetype" and shamanistic ideologies, and also the general moral, explainative, and philosophical content of his writings indicate that these stories can be viewed as "modern myth". Throughout Casteneda's stories you can see the "Heroic Journey Archetype". Carlos goes through a restless stage and breaks ties with his studies and professors at school. He moves forward with the help of don Juan, whose shamanic wisdom enlightens and guides Carlos along his spiritual path. He also faces death many times in his quest to become a warrior. Finally, after many years, he "passes through". This mythological archetype is one of the main reasons I believe his stories are mythical in nature. There are also many shamanistic idealogies that run throughout his stories. Views of the natural world including plant life, animal life, and elements are all personified. Everything is embodied with spirit. Concepts of reality are altered through drug induced states. Mushrooms and peyote are mainly used in rituals that don Juan uses to teach Carlos his way of knowledge: Mescalito, the "spirit" of the peyote plant, indicated to don Juan that Carlos was the "chosen" one, the person to whom don Juan should pass on his knowledge(CLC,87). Don Juan speaks of many different spirits and separate realities. His teaching's gave an explanation to man's view of existence and his ignorance resulting from attachment to the material world. Mythological proof is also found in don Juan's teachings, which compare Indian folklore, mysticism, and philosophy. Don Juan explains that there are many different planes of reality and that a warrior must detach himself with the aid of an ally. Carlos's ally is "Mescalito" or the spirit of the peyote plant. Don Juan's ally is "the little smoke"; a mixture made from hallucinogenic mushrooms. He explains that all life is made up of controlled folly and attachment to the material world causes ignorance and blindness. A warrior must learn to "see" and an ally helps achieve these states of non-ordinary "seeing." Don Juan's teachings are closely related to Buddhist philosophy. By achieving these states of non-ordinary reality a warrior learns how to live correctly without any material distractions. Carlos Casteneda's stories contain many mythical elements. "Heroic Archetype", shamanistic ideals, and eastern philosophical ideals are just a few. His views of reality and the spiritual journey to true knowledge are remarkable. "For me there is only the traveling on paths that have heart, on any path that may have heart. There I travel, and the only worthwhile challenge is to transverse its full length. And there I travel, looking, looking, breathlessly."-Don Juan

Structural Levels of The Iliad

Wars are often very complex in nature and are fought for many diverse reasons. The school boy may fight in order to get money for college, the patriot may fight to bring life, liberty and justice to some poor soul, and a coward may fight because he was drafted by force. In the Iliad, powerful gods, great nations, and heroic people all fight for many different reasons. This wide variety of fighting results in unique situations, problems, and structural levels to the war. These structural levels are of special interest, because they help define the consequences and outcomes of the war. The universal war of the gods, social war of the Greeks and Trojans, and the private war of Achilles' honor are structural levels of the Trojan war. These structural levels seem to influence and shape each other in many distinct ways. The universal war between the gods over the apple of discord consequently lead to the social war between the Greeks and the Trojans. For example, Aphrodite promised Paris that he could have the most beautiful woman in the world if he gave the apple of discord to her. He did so, and decided to go and get his reward. Unfortunately, the most beautiful women in the world, Helen, was the wife of the Greek King Menelaus. The abduction of Helen by Paris lead to the Trojan war. The promise made by Aphrodite to Paris in order to get the apple of discord resulted in the abduction of Helen and the start of the Trojan war. Therefore, Aphrodite, in the universal war, set the stage for the social war of the Greeks and Trojans. Another time the gods influenced the social war was when the Greeks and Trojans had a one on one battle to decide the outcome of the war. The Greeks chose King Menelaus and the Trojans chose Paris. Menelaus and Paris fought, but when Paris was about to be killed he was whisked off by Aphrodite. Both sides agreed that the Greeks had won. Zeus decided to start the war again, and he sent Athena to trick Pandaros to shoot at Menelaus, breaking the truce between the Greeks and Trojans. This intervention by Zeus lead to another outbreak of war between the Greeks and Trojans. The universal war of Athena and Hera versus Aphrodite had Zeus so caught up in it that he did not want the social war to end. A god in the universal war once again created the social war between Troy and Greece. The universal war was the cause of the social war of Greece and Troy. The private war of Achilles' honor was an outgrowth of the social war between the Greeks and the Trojans. During the social war, Apollo grew angry at the Greeks for the abuse of his priest, Chryses. The Greeks had abused Chryses when Agamemnon took Chryses' daughter, Chryseis, during the raid of the town of Thebes. Agamemnon wanted a replacement for Chryseis, so he took Briseis from Achilles. This deeply wounded the honor of Achilles, and he decided to stop fighting in the social war until his honor was amended. Achilles was angered by an event that occurred in the social war, thus providing the need for Achilles to reclaim his honor. The social war was the cause of the private war of Achilles. The opportunity for Achilles to carry out his private war came after the death of his comrade, Patroclus. Because Achilles would not fight, Patroclus asked him if he could wear his armor. Patroclus thought that this might make others think he was Achilles, so that the Trojans might be scared and the Greeks might gain courage and confidence. Achilles consented, and during the ensuing battle Patroclus was killed by Hector. Achilles now had a way to go out and fight gloriously, in order to avenge Patroclus' death as well as to mend his honor that was so wounded by the ransack of Briseis. The social war then influenced the outcome of the private war of Achilles. Events that occurred in the social war created and influence the private war of Achilles to reclaim his honor. The universal war of the gods was deeply impacted by the private war of Achilles. In some instances, the private war of Achilles fueled the universal war of the gods. An example of this was when Achilles was killing Trojans left and right in the river Scamandros. All of the dead Trojans in the water made Scamandros angry, and he chased Achilles with a huge wave. Athena and Posiedon both saw this, and they called on Hephaistos to burn the river with fire. This massive conflict between the gods was fueled by the result of Achilles' private war. Essentially, Achilles' private war was a source of major conflict between the gods. The universal war of the gods was also resolved by some of the effects of Achilles' private war. The universal war occurred mainly because Hera and Athena felt that Aphrodite should not have received the apple of discord. This resulted in a symbolic social war that mirrored the war of the gods. Achilles' effect on the social war, during his private conquest, caused the social war to come to an victorious end for the Greeks. In a way, the victory of the Greeks was a reward to Hera and Athena, in order to compensate for the fact that Aphrodite had received the coveted apple of discord. The private war of Achilles swayed the social war to the extent that it effected the resolution of the universal war of the gods. The private war of Achilles motivated the gods to fight and to resolve the universal war. All of these examples show the numerous consequences and influences that the structural levels of the Trojan war had on each other and the outcome of the Trojan war. The universal war of the gods over the apple of discord created the social war between the Greeks and Trojans. This social war lead to Achilles' war to redeem his honor. Achilles' private conquest then had a enormous effect in giving the Greeks victory of the social war. The resolution of the social war eventually lead to peace on Mt. Olympus. The three structural levels of the Iliad thus created, carried out, and concluded the Trojan war.